: The arrangement of devices on a network. Common topologies include bus, star, ring, mesh, and hybrid.

She injected the protocol into the backbone router. For a terrifying moment, the network graph on her wall turned a deep, angry red. The echo packets multiplied.

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: Communication is defined by how data flows between devices, typically categorized into (one-way), Half-Duplex (two-way but not simultaneous), and Full-Duplex (simultaneous two-way) modes. Medium Selection : Data travels through various "guided" media, such as twisted pair cables coaxial cables fiber optics , each offering different speeds and capacities. Key Design Issues in Networking